Thyroid hormones, L-thyroxine (T4) and L-triiodothyronine (T3), regulate many different physiological processes in different tissues in vertebrates. Most of the actions of thyroid hormones are mediated by the thyroid hormone receptor (“TR”), which is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription regulators. This superfamily also includes receptors for steroid hormones, retinoids, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. These receptors are transcription factors that can regulate expression of specific genes in various tissues and are targets for widely used drugs, such as tamoxifen, an estrogen receptor partial antagonist. There are two different genes that encode two different TRs, TRα and TRβ. These two TRs are often co-expressed at different levels in different tissues. Most thyroid hormones do not discriminate between the two TRs and bind both with similar affinities.
Gene knockout studies in mice indicate that TRβ plays a role in the development of the auditory system and in the negative feedback of thyroid stimulating hormone by T3 in the pituitary, whereas TRα modulates the effect of thyroid hormone on calorigenesis and on the cardiovascular system. The identification of TR antagonists could play an important role in the future treatment of hypothyroidism. Such molecules would act rapidly by directly antagonizing the effect of thyroid hormone at the receptor level, a significant improvement for individuals with hypothyroidism who require surgery, have cardiac disease, or are at risk for life-threatening thyrotoxic storm.
Thus, there remains a need for the development of compounds that selectively modulate thyroid hormone action by functioning as isoform-selective agonists or antagonists of the thyroid hormone receptors (TRs). Recent efforts have focused on the design and synthesis of thyroid hormone (T3/T4) antagonists as potential therapeutic agents and chemical probes. There is also a need for the development of thyromimetic compounds that are more accessible than the natural hormone and have potentially useful receptor binding and activation properties.
It is estimated that five million people are afflicted with chronic stable angina in the United States. Each year 200,000 people under the age of 65 die from what is termed “premature ischemic heart disease.” Despite medical therapy, many others go on to suffer myocardial infarction and debilitating symptoms prompting the need for revascularization with either percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty or coronary artery bypass surgery. It has been postulated that one way of relieving myocardial ischemia would be to enhance coronary collateral circulation.
Correlations have now been made between the anatomic appearance of coronary collateral vessels (“collaterals”) visualized at the time of intracoronary thrombolytic therapy during the acute phase of myocardial infarction and the creatine kinase time-activity curve, infarct size, and aneurysm formation. These studies demonstrate a protective role of collaterals in hearts with coronary obstructive disease, showing smaller infarcts, less aneurysm formation, and improved ventricular function compared with patients in whom collaterals were not visualized. When the cardiac myocyte is rendered ischemic, collaterals develop actively by growth with DNA replication and mitosis of endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Once ischemia develops, these factors are activated and become available for receptor occupation, which may initiate angiogenesis after exposure to exogenous heparin. Unfortunately, the “natural” process by which angiogenesis occurs is inadequate to reverse the ischemia in almost all patients with coronary artery disease.
During ischemia, adenosine is released through the breakdown of ATP. Adenosine participates in many cardio-protective biological events. Adenosine has a role in hemodynamic changes such as bradycardia and vasodilation, and has been suggested to have a role in such unrelated phenomena as preconditioning and possibly the reduction in reperfusion injury (Ely and Beme, Circulation, 85: 893 (1992).
Angiogenesis is the development of new blood vessels from preexisting blood vessels (Mousa, S. A., In Angiogenesis Inhibitors and Stimulators: Potential Therapeutic Implications, Landes Bioscience, Georgetown, Tex.; Chapter 1, (2000)). Physiologically, angiogenesis ensures proper development of mature organisms, prepares the womb for egg implantation, and plays a key role in wound healing. The development of vascular networks during embryogenesis or normal and pathological angiogenesis depends on growth factors and cellular interactions with the extracellular matrix (Breier et al., Trends in Cell Biology 6:454-456 (1996); Folkman, Nature Medicine 1:27-31 (1995); Risau, Nature 386:671-674 (1997). Blood vessels arise during embryogenesis by two processes: vasculogenesis and angiogenesis (Blood et al., Bioch. Biophys. Acta 1032:89-118 (1990). Angiogenesis is a multi-step process controlled by the balance of pro- and anti-angiogenic factors. The latter stages of this process involve proliferation and the organization of endothelial cells (EC) into tube-like structures. Growth factors such as FGF2 and VEGF are thought to be key players in promoting endothelial cell growth and differentiation.
Control of angiogenesis is a complex process involving local release of vascular growth factors (P Carmeliet, Ann NY Acad Sci 902:249-260, 2000), extracellular matrix, adhesion molecules, and metabolic factors (R J Tomanek, G C Schatteman, Anat Rec 261:126-135, 2000). Mechanical forces within blood vessels may also play a role (O Hudlicka, Molec Cell Biochem 147:57-68, 1995). The principal classes of endogenous growth factors implicated in new blood vessel growth are the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)(G Pages, Ann NY Acad Sci 902:187-200, 2000). The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK; ERK1/2) signal transduction cascade is involved both in VEGF gene expression and in control of proliferation of vascular endothelial cells.
Intrinsic adenosine may facilitate the coronary flow response to increased myocardial oxygen demands and so modulate the coronary flow reserve (Ethier et al., Am. J. Physiol., H131 (1993)) by demonstrating that the addition of physiological concentrations of adenosine to human umbilical vein endothelial cell cultures stimulates proliferation, possibly via a surface receptor. Adenosine may be a factor for human endothelial cell growth and possibly angiogenesis. Angiogenesis appears to be protective for patients with obstructive blood flow such as coronary artery disease (“CAD”), but the rate at which blood vessels grow naturally is inadequate to reverse the disease. Thus, strategies to enhance and accelerate the body's natural angiogenesis potential should be beneficial in patients with CAD.
Similarly, wound healing is a major problem in many developing countries and diabetics have impaired wound healing and chronic inflammatory disorders, with increased use of various cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) inhibitors. Angiogenesis is necessary for wound repair since the new vessels provide nutrients to support the active cells, promote granulation tissue formation, and facilitate the clearance of debris. Approximately 60% of the granulation tissue mass is composed of blood vessels which also supply the necessary oxygen to stimulate repair and vessel growth. It is well documented that angiogenic factors are present in wound fluid and promote repair while antiangiogenic factors inhibit repair. Wound angiogenesis is a complex multi-step process. Despite a detailed knowledge about many angiogenic factors, little progress has been made in defining the source of these factors, the regulatory events involved in wound angiogenesis, and in the clinical use of angiogenic stimulants to promote repair. Further complicating the understanding of wound angiogenesis and repair is the fact that the mechanisms and mediators involved in repair likely vary depending on the depth of the wound, type of wound (burn, trauma, etc.), and the location (muscle, skin, bone, etc.). The condition and age of the patient (diabetic, paraplegic, on steroid therapy, elderly vs infant, etc) can also determine the rate of repair and response to angiogenic factors. The sex of the patient and hormonal status (premenopausal, post menopausal, etc.) may also influence the repair mechanisms and responses. Impaired wound healing particularly affects the elderly and many of the 14 million diabetics in the United States. Because reduced angiogenesis is often a causative agent for wound healing problems in these patient populations, it is important to define the angiogenic factors important in wound repair and to develop clinical uses to prevent and/or correct impaired wound healing.
Thus, there remains a need for an effective therapy in the way of angiogenic agents as either primary or adjunctive therapy for promotion of wound healing, coronary angiogenesis, or other angiogenic-related disorders, with minimum side effects. Such a therapy would be particularly useful for patients who have vascular disorders such as myocardial infarctions, stroke or peripheral artery diseases and could be used prophylactically in patients who have poor coronary circulation, which places them at high risk of ischemia and myocardial infarctions.
It is interesting to note that angiogenesis also occurs in other situations, but which are undesirable, including solid tumor growth and metastasis; rheumatoid arthritis; psoriasis; scleroderma; and three common causes of blindness—diabetic retinopathy, retrolental fibroplasia, and neovascular glaucoma (in fact, diseases of the eye are almost always accompanied by vascularization). The process of wound angiogenesis actually has many features in common with tumor angiogenesis. Thus, there are some conditions, such as diabetic retinopathy or the occurrence of primary or metastatic tumors, where angiogenesis is undesirable. Thus, there remains a need for methods by which to inhibit the effect of angiogenic agents.